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Activities
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Latin American Jewry:
Prof. Haim Avni Prof. Avni opens by stating that Latin American Jewry is not facing the end of the dream. However, the current immigration from Argentina and other Latin American countries can be defined as immigration under distress. It is not the first wave of immigration of its kind. The years 1962/1963 also bore witness to a wave of immigration under distress. While Israel itself was going through a period of severe economic hardships, many Argentinean Jews felt that two of their fundamental dreams had collapsed: personal economic independence and equal rights as citizens. All this transpired at the time of rising anti-Semitism, which was especially highlighted by the Sirota Affair. This wave of immigration stood in direct contrast to the aliyah (immigration to Israel ) of pioneers. Immediately following the establishment of the State of Israel and on through the 1950s, a wave of Latin American immigrants established pioneering settlements in Israel . This was an aliyah that opposed the current trend of joining and intermingling with majority society. ( It is worth mentioning that for the most the immigrants — olim — were part children of immigrants). It was an aliyah with a Jewish vision as well as social aims and ideals, which stemmed from a sense of alienation that was the product of their failure to obtain full equality in Latin America (during the first terms of Juan Peron in Argentina and Getulio Vargas in Brazil). The antisemitism at that time— even if it was not violent — led most of the immigrants to shun the exile. To a certain extent, this immigration was motivated by the fear of an impending catastrophe, which threatened the lives of the Jews in the Diaspora. These views are accepted both in Israel and in Latin America . The latter tended to identify Zionism with aliyah , yet at the same time failed to take into account the non-catastrophic elements of aliyah and overlooked the positive viewpoint that saw in Zionism as a revival of the Jewish people, which derived from freedom of choice and not due to outside pressures. The positive perspective was further enhanced by the influence of the Six-Day War on Diaspora Jewry. The earlier fears concerning Israel 's existence and its future were greater in the Diaspora than in Israel itself (unlike the Diaspora, there was no television broadcasts available in Israel ). Nevertheless, the call for immigration in the aftermath of the great victory produced disappointing results. Between 1967 and 1969, only 2,380 immigrants arrived from Argentina . However when economic conditions worsened in Argentina as a result of the financial crisis, immigration to Israel increased and between 1969-1973, 8,971 immigrants arrived to Israel . Naturally, not all the Argentineans that arrived from 1967-1969 were ideological immigrants and not all the Argentineans that came between 1969-1973 were immigrants of distress. Yet, the difference between the two periods is indicative of an external element that encouraged and promoted aliyah to Israel . In the background of the Zionist dream (ideological immigration vis a vis distress) there are two dreams: a personal economic dream and the dream of civil equality. The Jewish communities had no power or control over these dreams, and they were clearly dependent on the events in and goals of the surrounding societies and communities. On the other hand, the communities did exert substantial influence (including international Jewish organizations) insofar as the communal dream is concerned. The desire to organize and live as Jews is essentially voluntary and the leadership acted on this same basis. They were the ones who determined the style and power of the organization, even when there were external forces that contributed to and had an influence on the community. An example of this is the substantial help that was provided by ICA the establishment of the Jewish communities in Argentina and Brazil , and who afterwards provided immense support to the organization of Jewish education in these communities. B'nai Brith, the Joint, and other organizations from the United States helped bring Jews to Cuba and Mexico . Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the World Zionist Organization and the Jewish Agency have had a tremendous impact on the formation of both formal and informal Jewish education in Latin America . Much energy was invested in order to strengthen the broad spectrum of Jewish communal life in all the Latin American countries with Jewish communities. The most prominent example of these efforts is the field of education, where the Zionist ideology prevailed over all the other streams and forces . Consequently, a situation evovled in which the strict Zionist ideology called for aliyah , but in practice Jewish life was rooted in the local community alongside the Zionist ethos. In other words , aliyah is of great importance officially, but in practice children are educated — from kindergarten until their entrance into university — to pursue a Jewish lifestyle that is integrated within the local society. The minimal Zionist dream, then, is hardly the be all and end all, and along side it stands the dream of civil emancipation and equality. In Argentina — where the Jewish community suffered from violent terrorist attacks (on the Israel Embassy in 1992 and the Jewish community center in 1994) — attempts to liberalize society have brought about important changes since 1994: the president of the country is no longer required to be Catholic (pursuant to an amendment to the Constitution) and several states have promulgated laws outlawing prejudice on account of race or religion. In addition, Jews have attained positions of power in countries such as Panama , Costa Rica , and Argentina . Jews have also been appointed to serve as their countries' ambassadors to Israel . Unfortunately, the number of mixed marriages has also risen, which is indicative of the Jews' assimilation within the majority society. In summation, despite the socio-economic and political crisis, we are not witnessing the fading out of either the dream of equality or the existence of the Jewish community. Therefore, given the reality of a growing spirit of emancipation, we must formulate the Zionist dream as a positive force and as one that is predicated on the eventuality of a catastrophe. Prof. Judith Boxer Liverant The dream of the Jewish immigrants in Latin America is composed of four dreams or one dream comprised of four parts: - The personal economic dimension - The status of the community dimension - The emancipation dimension - The Zionist dimension To reply to the question of whether this four-part dream still exists requires that we refer to the conditions that developed over an erstwhile period. It is not a simple task to present an overall picture of the Jewish communities in Latin America given the great variety of countries and the numerous changes that have prevailed on the continent. These changes and processes can perhaps be explained or understood in the context of the globalization process that informs the various fields of economic development, governmental attitudes, social views, and culture, as well as the interaction among them. The processes are not uniform. To put it succinctly, in a world that is in a process of unification, its differences and diversity are still maintained. When examining the relationship between the national and economic changes, we are witnesses to a paradoxical situation. Since the 1980s, in the aftermath of global trends and changes, the continent has undergone a process of democratization, openness, and pluralism. These developments were accompanied by economic changes, which in turn led to a general reduction in the standard of living, an economic downturn, increased unemployment, and the establishment of an informal economic structure. One of the consequences of these changes has been a rise in poverty and inequality. According to the figures of CEPAL, in 2002, half of the Latin American population was below the poverty line. The richest five percent accounted for 25% of the national income, while the bottom 30% received 7.6% of the pie. This process has come at a serious social cost, as various groups have been thrust to the margins of society — particularly the middle classes — and a poverty-stricken society that was hitherto unknown has taken form. Consequently, a new social order has been constructed and political violence has emerged. The influence of this process on the Jewish community has had various and conflicting results. On the one hand, Argentinean Jewry, which contained a broad middle class in a society where the middle class had considerable influence (in the 1980's about 75% of the Jews belonged to the middle class), has been hit hard . In 1999, more than 18,000 people turned to the community for financial assistance and support, and it can be assumed that the situation has subsequently taken a turn for the worse. In this context the dream of economic and social mobility has indeed vanished. In Mexico , 73.7% of the Jews belong to the middle and upper classes (within the general population only 8.3% belong to these classes). Accordingly, only 5% of the Jews belong to the lower class (as compared to 63% of non-Jews). Therefore, the crisis has most affected non-Jews. Nonetheless about 1,000 Jews (5% of the community) needed help from the Jewish community in 2002, but the extent of the crisis on the community transcends the mere numbers. There is still another small percentage of the Jewish populace that requires the community's services, in contrast to previous years in which the majority of Jews had integrated themselves into the economy. Globalization is now working against this broad-based integration and is responsible for the internal disparity within the Jewish community. The spreading poverty has not only impacted the individual Jew, but has affected the entire community. The above-mentioned economic support comprised the second dimension of forging a communal life. These services were meant to provide for the basic physical and spiritual needs of the immigrants who came to the continent. Accordingly, institutions were founded that have served as the basis for Jewish identity. In contrast to the outstanding achievements of the past, the communities shrinking. An exception to this rule is the Mexican Jewish community, which has actually expanded in recent years. But this is due to the surge of Jewish immigrants from the south. The Argentinean Jewish community has dwindled from a peak of about 300,000 people in the 1970's to some 200,000 Jews today. In Brazil the population has dropped from 140,000 to 98,000, and a similar process has beset other communities: for example, Uruguay , Venezuela , and Columbia . Similarly, membership in the organizations of the Jewish community has declined, and in Argentina it has dipped to 50%. Jewish education, more than ever, constitutes the barometer of communal life. In the past, the Jewish educational system served between 60 to 70 percent of the Jewish children between the ages of three to seventeen. Under the wave of the neo-liberal economic system, the Jewish community in Argentina was unable to maintain its dimensions, much less progress. Around ten schools have been forced to close since 1995, and today only 40% of its Jewish children attend Jewish schools. Chile and Brazil have been stable, but the amount of pupils in their schools was low to begin with. Only Mexico has increased its student population, and today over 90% of the potential population is enrolled in its Jewish schools. This achievement has been attained in the face of difficulties by dint of joint, voluntary efforts. The policy of awarding scholarships to many pupils was introduced from Israel . Furthermore a schism has developed between the political and the spiritual realms of public life. Accordingly, we must point out the changes that have occurred from the standpoint of identity and organization in the religious life of the Jews on the continent. Two examples illustrate these changes: A. Starting in the 1960's, the Conservative Movement arrived in Latin America from the United States and adapted to local conditions. Consequently, the synagogue became a communal center. A rabbinical seminar was even established in Argentina , which provided young rabbinical leadership (more than 70 graduates, 41 who serve in Latin America, 15 in the United States , and even a few in Israel ). B. The expanding presence of the Chabad movement on the continent with the establishment of centers, in both large and small communities alike. There are 59 Chabad rabbis in Latin America — 20 in Brazil , 33 in Argentina — spread over 40 institutions. Their presence is also felt in Mexico and other communities. Religion has once again returned to the public realm. One of the present challenges of Jewish life is to integrate a personal Jewish identity within communal life. Jews are groping for new definitions of communal and national identity. Jewish literature is the arena in which this conflict and search is being waged. The right to be different — the legitimization of the particular — is the topic of many Jewish books being published on the continent. These desires point to a cultural change and at times to a departure and estrangement from communal life. This metamorphosis derives from the traumatic experience of the attacks during the 1990s, which strengthened the spirit of survival that was so prevalent during the many generations of the Jewish exile and enabled Jews to survive throughout their long history . The dynamics of seeking an identity points to the third aspect of the dream: the search for freedom and equality — the emancipatory dream. This dream entails a legal-formal realm; namely, the ability of the Jews to obtain and enjoy their rights, attain key positions in the economy and other fields. The fulfillment of the dream is thus predicated on the capacity of the majority to accept these differences and afford the Jewish minority the legitimization that it seeks. It is interesting to note that throughout the entire continent — both the Indo-Americans and Euro-Americans countries — there is a move towards democratic-pluralistic societies, which enable comprehensive Jewish participation in public life. Therefore, even when the democratic power does not fully succeed in controlling anti-Semitic elements, the Jewish community is still able to declare that the dream of emancipation has fulfilled its goal in Latin America . The emancipatory dream leads to yet another element that is a prominent part of the Latin American Jewish life: namely the Zionist dream and the focus of community life through the lenses of its ideology. Israel 's centrality has served as the focal point of Latin America 's Jewish communal organizations. Zionism has provided the foundation for identity; moreover, Israel has played a leading role in the field of education and culture, as well as in the community's political institutions. The Zionists prevailed in their struggle against competing elements for the heart of the communities. In the aftermath of the Six-Day War, the mutual dependence of the community on Israel and vice a versa was strengthened, yet here lies the paradox: the centrality of Israel did not necessarily strengthen aliyah , but helped maintain the present life and increased the demand for communal life in the Diaspora. That said, Israel 's prominence is given its most salient expression by the 100,000 immigrants ( olim ) from Latin America who now live there. The reasons for immigration from Latin America have changed over time and have primarily been the product of the particular circumstances on the continent. In today's global world, there is a demand for pluralism and the integration of the Jews in the ruling society. Yet at the same time, there is the desire for Israel 's centrality, which strengthens Jewish education and culture. Moreover, there is a search for values that is capable of ensuring Jewish continuity. All this transpired within a complex social framework, other trends, and occasionally under the specter of severe local crises. Israel will have to toil to win over the hearts of Latin American Jewry. To do so, it will have to emphasize its values and the specific contributions of its own existence to the existence of the entire Jewish people. An assessment of the value and validity of the “dream” of Latin American Jewry demands a broad perspective of all its dimensions. The painting that has been drawn before you contains contradictions that reflect the vicissitudes that the continent has endured and that have a significant impact on the status and tendencies of the Jewish communities in the Diaspora. Rabbi Maurisio Balter I would like to speak from the standpoint of a person who is familiar with the field, but not as a scholar, despite the fact that I am also involved in research. The previous speakers have mentioned the idea of the “dream,” but according to this line of thought they should have also mentioned the “disappointment.” We built the communities in the southern part of the hemisphere primarily under the assumption that we were constructing edifices that would last forever, and we did not pay attention to the changes that were taking place in the vicinity. In building the community, we relied primarily on the middle-classes, so that if this class were to fall so would the rest of the community . To my chagrin, the previous speakers have not discussed the leadership crisis, particularly in Argentina , and how this has affected the community. As such, the Latin American project has changed dramatically, and today the chief goal is survival, especially in Argentina and Uruguay . We are now witnessing a reorganization process , even in communities like Guadalajara , Mexico that are inviting people to join them. Moreover, the basis for membership in the communities is changing. If at one time there was an emphasis on the quality of Jewish education, today the main elements being stressed are charity and solidarity. I travel extensively throughout the continent in an attempt to interest people in immigration to Israel . I can also vouch for the fact that the education programs have undergone immense changes. During one of my recent visits, I met with the leaders of one of the largest youth movements in Argentina ; twenty-four members attended the meeting. In response to my question on aliyah , only two responded that they had plans to make aliyah , so that in actual fact there is no major difference between the Magshima (Zionist) Movement and any other social club. Therefore, there is still much work to be done in all that concerns the field of aliyah . If only 50% of the Jewish children are registered in the Jewish educational system, as Professor Livrant claims, then in actual fact we have no contact with about half of the Jews. Therefore, in my opinion, the main thrust of our efforts should be invested in the field of aliyah , with the utilization of newer and more innovative techniques. In the last four and half years, 333 families (1,200 people) have already arrived in Kiryat Bialik [ a town on the outskirts of Haifa ] via the Latin American Project, and eight delegates have gone to South America to encourage aliyah . Benefits and airline tickets are not enough; there must also be a Zionist program and goal. Different groups can be distinguished from among the current olim [immigrants to Israel ]. There are those that arrive due to ideological beliefs, while others examine their options and the conditions in various places before coming to Israel . The third group are the refugees; those that did not have the time or opportunity to examine the various possibilities and come to Israel regardless of the circumstances. We must serve the characteristics of each group in an appropriate manner, as if we do not adapt ourselves to their needs and to the situation in Latin America , we may very well miss the train. Summary of the Discussion Q - Over the past generation, what have been the trends that characterize Latin American Jewry with respect to the following three fields: a. ties to the State of Israel and Zionism; b. their attitude towards religion and tradition; c. being Jewish in general and Jewish communal life in particular. A - Insofar as the first clause is concerned, Prof. Judit Bokser Liverant notes that unceasing efforts are being made to preserve the relationship between Israel and Latin American Jews. There are differences between South America’s various regions from the standpoint of demographics, class, and other respects. Argentinean Jewry managed to establish frameworks that qualify teachers and clergy. Today these professionals fill positions in Jewish communities throughout the length and width of the continent. Israel also invests considerable resources in Latin America for the purpose of preserving its relationship with these communities. For example, Israel currently has [as of the end of 2002] about 50 envoys serving as teachers and another 37 are involved with informal frameworks. On the topic of religion, Jews in Latin America, as well as the rest of the Jewish Diaspora, are in the midst of an individualization process. In other words, Jews are turning towards the inner realm as part of their personal search for significance. This trend is making considerable progress at the expense of the public-social aspects of religion. That said, the communal characteristics that have long informed the Jewish community of Latin America continue to play a prominent role, but one can sense the perpetual tension between these two dimensions. In any event, if until recently the Jewish community evinced a strong secular ethos, the religious factor is undoubtedly gaining momentum throughout the continent. Finally, we are also bearing witness to a major shift in Jewish identity. Renewal is needed on both the personal and organizational levels, as the erstwhile connection between destruction and rebirth, the Holocaust and renewal, is gradually losing its hold. In fact, an appreciable vacuum has indeed taken form among entire sectors, such as intellectuals and writers, skilled professionals, and among the ranks of the youth. There is a strong sense that the time has come to build a consensus around a new identification with the State of Israel and the Holocaust. This is a challenge that the State of Israel and the official community leadership must attend to at once. To follow are several comments that were voiced over the course of the discussion: - In describing and analyzing Jewish life in Latin America, one must take into account the attitude of the Jews to the majority societies as well as their status therein. It is important to note that these societies allow Jews to ascend to lofty government positions. For example, the continent has already produced three presidents of Jewish descent and a fourth is married to a Jew. These achievements are undoubtedly significant and are indicative of the activities and integration of the Jewish communities in their environment. - Two great dreams that were shared by all the Jews in South America—particularly the Jews in Argentina—have shattered. The first dream, which dates back over one hundred years and was initiated by the Baron de Hirsch, was to establish an extensive network of Jewish rural communities. For all intents and purposes, this sort of Jewish settlement no longer exists. The second dream was the construction of a magnificent Jewish education network. The community indeed managed to realize this vision, only to see it deteriorate in recent years. We have no problem with the end of the dream of Jewish rural settlement in Argentina, but are deeply troubled with the poor state of Argentina’s once thriving Jewish education network. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the State of Israel to save this steadily crumbling system and the Israeli Ministry of Education should be given responsibility over the curriculum and budgets of Jewish education throughout the Diaspora. - There is also a problem with the way in which the Zionist message is being conveyed to the Jewish communities in the Diaspora. For example, the nationalist Zionist camps in South Africa and Latin America have long been the dominant forces in the community. However, in times of crisis, most of the South African Jews that decided to pack their bags headed for Australia and Canada, while there South American counterparts relocated to Miami and other venues. Only a small minority of both these immigrant groups chose to resettle in Israel. We needn’t reprimand the Jews of the Diaspora for their decisions, but it is imperative that the weaknesses of the Zionist message and public-relations effort be identified so that we may figure out why Israel has been unable to attract these populations en masse. Another question that demands answering is why not one of the 100,000 Latin American olim—most of whom came for ideological reasons—has ascended to the ranks of the country’s political elite? - A distinction must be made between two conceptions of what Prof. Avni referred to as the “catastrophic aliyah.” Zionism was indeed predicated on a type of catastrophe that was defined as ideological. To our regret, today we are bearing witness to a catastrophe that is utterly existential from a Jewish standpoint: The Jews of South America traditionally possessed a popular national identity that was largely weaned from the sources of the Yiddish language and which may be considered an ethnic identity. This identity was evinced by the non-Zionist, leftist camp (the Bund, the Jewish communists) and to some extent by the Zionist nationalist camp. However, the ethnic identity is fading away and religious identity is fast filling the void. That said, the ethnic identity has not completely vanished and partially explains the continued aliyah from Latin America, even in the throes of Israel’s present security problems. One of the major obstacles to extensive Latin American aliyah is that Israel has yet to find an economic or vocational solution for the continent’s Jewish middle class, which has long earned a livelihood in trade and commerce. As discussed, until recently the identity of South American Jewry was predicated on ethnic, national, and secular loyalties—all of which are also conscious components of Zionism. However, when put to the test, their ethnic identity proved to be wanting, as most of the Jews that left their countries did not resettle in the Jewish state (inter alia, the Jews that left Chile). Therefore, we may conclude that their conscious identity and anti-Semitism and/or economic crises are the factors that have provided the impetus for major shifts. Much to our chagrin, Latin American Jewry didn’t place enough of an emphasis on the identity factor. As times—including the recent crisis in Argentina — this deficiency was exacerbated by a severe dearth of competent local Jewish leadership.
I recall two incidents from my visit to Argentina during the military regime in the early 1980s. Firstly, I was impressed by the thousands of Jewish families that gathered for the weekend outings at the Maccabi in Buenos Aires , where they conducted extensive Jewish programs. It was most impressive. Another memory from that period, which is rather sad , was the visit of Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe Shamir to Argentina . Vast efforts were undertaken so that the foreign minister would be permitted to visit one of the Jewish political prisoners that the government had incarcerated. Ultimately, the government acceded to this request. However, not only was the prisoner not interested in meeting the minister, but rejected him with insults and curses. These two stories teach us about Argentinean Jewry. There are currently 450,000 Jews in Latin America, with approximately 200,000 in Argentina and 100,000 in Brazil . The Jews of Argentina are spread out over the entire country. For the most part, the communities are known for their long-standing support and appreciation for Israel . Moreover, the community's educational system is very advanced . I visited Mexico this past year and was also deeply impressed with the Jewish community there and its support for Israel . It was exhilarating to spend the weekend (Friday-Shabbat) in the community and see its many synagogues, overflowing with members and participants. To our dismay, the last few years have also borne witness to unpleasant processes and crises that are developing on the Latin American continent. I am proud of the 100,000 immigrants ( olim ) from Latin America who have made substantial contributions to Israeli culture, economics, academics, medicine, and more. Over the past year, we have also seen an increase in the number of immigrants from Argentina . At a time of crisis, we should encourage them to make aliyah to Israel and not to immigrate to Spain or the United States . Despite all the difficulties involved and in light of the past history, aliyah constitutes the best scenario for future generations. This subject must be placed on the agenda of Latin American Jewry and imbued into the life of their communities. Note: Following the lectures, designated response, and the president's summation, the panel fielded questions from the audience and a discussion ensued. The question and answer session has been published in its entirety in a volume that includes all the meetings of the President's Forum on Diaspora Jewry in 2003. |
